The Sherman Antitrust Act Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Sherman Antitrust Act - Research Paper Example Some of the businesses have tried elimination of competition vial illegal means, for instance, assigning territories to varying competitors in an industry, and fixing prices. Antitrust laws, thus seek to eliminate illegal behavior as well as promoting fair and free marketplace competition. The Sherman Act made agreements that were in restraint of trade illegal and also made the crime to monopolize commerce and part of the trade. The Act’s purpose was the maintenance of competition in business. Congress enacted the Sherman Act to regulate interstate commerce (Liuzzo, 2012). The Sherman Antitrust Act contains seven sections. The section one provides the description that any contract, trust combination, trusts or conspiracy towards restraining commerce or trade between several states and with foreign nations are declared illegal. Courts have interpreted the Sherman Act to forbid the unreasonable restraints of trade. There has to be a conspiracy of trade and effect on the interstate commerce. Under the Rule of Reason, courts will look for many factors to decide whether the specific restraint of trade restricts unreasonable competition. To be specific, the court will consider the relevant industry make up, the position of the defendant in the industry as well as the defendant’s competitor’s ability in responding to the practice challenged and the purpose of the defendant in restraint adoption (Worth, 2011). Considering this analysis, courts are forced to consider anti-competitive and pro-competitive effects. For other types of restraints, the courts just have to recognize the restraint type, and the plaintiff has to just show that the restraint occurred. Section one of the Act makes a prohibition towards concerted action. Evidence of this action can be shown through a written or express agreement, or from circumstantial evidence. Antitrust enforcement underwent

Testosterone's direct effect on adult males diagnosed with depression Research Paper

Testosterone's direct effect on adult males diagnosed with depression - Research Paper Example Almost all vital organ systems in the human body need testosterone to work efficiently hence their functioning is also affected by a decrease in testosterone levels. The overall health of men, especially their psychological or emotional wellbeing, largely depends on testosterone levels. Because testosterone’s serum level lowers as men become older, sexual fervor and strength also lowers, resulting in a higher risk for depressive symptoms. Decrease in testosterone levels can also cause impotence in mean, and this is usually another cause of depression (Grant & Potenza, 2007). Luckily testosterone levels can be diagnosed and treated. Relationship between Testosterone Levels and Depression in Men Some empirical findings substantiate the assumption that testosterone is related to depression. Primarily, cross-sectional research has studied the connection between testosterone levels and development of depressive symptoms. In addition, the levels of gonadotropin in non-depressed and depressed groups have been studied. Moreover, there are quite a few longitudinal studies looking at the testosterone levels throughout occurrences of depression in men (Kaplan, 2012). Basically, one way to understand the effect of testosterone levels on male depression is to study the correlation between testosterone levels and depression in elderly males. Sternbach (1998) examined empirical studies on the natural decrease of testosterone in adult males and discovered an apparent correlation between low testosterone levels and different symptoms of mood disorders, such as bad temper, sexual problems, anxiety, and depression. These natural outcomes of the decrease of testosterone may resemble a mood disturbance in elderly males. This correlation offers indirect substantiation for a relationship between testosterone levels and male depression (Heidelbaugh, 2007). Studies that focus on the effect of testosterone levels on the development of depressive symptoms among adult males have pr oduced varied findings. Yesavage and colleagues (1985) studied levels of testosterone in depressed males and discovered a moderate inverse correlation between levels of testosterone and the degree of depression when the latter was controlled. The hypothesized correlation between degree of depression and testosterone levels was discovered. Another set of studies that substantiates the effect of testosterone on male depression is derived from the application of the testosterone replacement therapy in the treatment of depressive symptoms in men. A number of studies have supported the effectiveness of testosterone replacement therapy in the treatment of depressive symptoms in men with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (Heidelbaugh, 2007). Wagner and colleagues (1996) reported that testosterone replacement therapy had a greater positive outcome compared to standard antidepressant treatments in treating depressive symptoms in males with HIV. Even though it may be tempting to search for a hormone-based biological substrate to demonstrate the severity and prevalence of male depression, there are no sufficient or strong indications that testosterone affects the prevalence and degree of depression in males. Treatment research supporting this is carried out with clinically vulnerable males, several of whom also display acute depressive sympto